Environmental Monitoring of water

Environmental monitoring is the survey of contaminants, chemical products or any other parameters on air, water or soil.

Several families of contaminants are mainly monitored but investigations also focuses on new emerging contaminants.

• Drug residues
• Pesticides
• PAHs (Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons) composed of several aromatic rings
• PCBs (Polychlorinated biphenyls), Furans and Dioxins which are persistent organic pollutants (POP)
• Endocrines disruptors (Bisphenols, synthetic estrogens)
• Perfluorinated compounds
• Biotoxins are microalgal toxins dissolved in seawater such as Pectenotoxin (PTXs), Yessotoxin (YTX), Okadaic acid (OA)/ Dinophysistoxin (DTXs) and Azaspiracids (AZAs)

Passive sampling enables the monitoring of contaminants (micropollutants or biotoxins) in water (surface water, groundwater, coastal water…) for a short (at least 7 days) to long period (with an average field deployment of one month) for which no power, maintenance and supervision is required. An average of the concentration of collected contaminants is measured in the laboratory.

We offer a large range of passive samplers to collect very wide families of natural or synthetic molecules on surface water or on groundwater. Some passive samplers such as disks passive samplers and POCIS can uptake similar compounds depending on the good choice of the sorbent/membrane. For each passive sampler, we also have a format for groundwater analysis.

Passive samplers

• Passive samplers based on SPE disks are designed to provide TWA concentration of polar or non polar organic compounds as well as metals during the sampling period. This passive sampler is very simple of use to extract the contaminants. These tools are also available for groundwater monitoring.
• The Polar Organic Chemical Integrative Sampler (POCIS) is designed to provide the time weighted average (TWA) concentration of hydrophilic organic chemicals (pesticides, drug residues, Glyphosate & AMPA, EDCs…) during the sampling period. POCIS can be supplied with or without Performance Reference Compound (PRC). Historically developed for polar compounds, some applications have been developped for non polar compounds such as Perfluorinated compounds (PFAS) thanks to the right combination of sorbent/membranes. These tools are also available for groundwater monitoring.
• Silicone rubbers are the convenient tools for the uptake of non-polar contaminants such as PAHs or PCBs.
• Solid phase adsorption toxin tracking (SPATT) is a new monitoring tool that simulates the biotoxin contamination of filter feeding bivalves.

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The French Ministry of Ecological Transition has published an order allowing the use of passive integrative samplers (PIS) for the monitoring of priority and relevant substances in the water matrix.

> Consult the legislative text for the monitoring of water – Annexes II et III (in French)

• Can generate a time-weighted average (TWA) concentration of the contaminants in water
• Deployable in harsh conditions
• No a priori preparation or supervision
• Detection of punctual contaminations
• Higher enrichment of contaminants
• Formats for surface water monitoring and for groundwater

AFFINISEP provides a complete range of sorbents for the retention of specific molecules or a family of contaminants for Pharmaceuticals, Pesticides, Herbicides, Endocrine disruptors, glyphosate & AMPA, perfluorinated compounds as well as all necessary accessories such as holder, canister, manifold, ….

P. Le Coustumer et al. have studied the efficiency of a domestic wastewater treatment to minimize the discharge of microorganisms and antibiotics in Senegal.
They used AttractSPE® HLB membrane-free discs as passive sampler to monitor the level of residual pharmaceutical molecules (doxycycline, ciprofloxacin, enoxacin, enrofloxacin, norfloxacin, ofloxacin, amoxicillin, ampicillin) at three different points in the wastewater: septic tanks, on the gravel filter and in the infiltration well.
Two immersion campaigns were carried out and the disks were exposed continuously for 7 days.
These disks were effective in demonstrating the efficacy of the treatment used.

Nini Sané et al. (2024) ‘Effect of Moringa oleifera seeds on the removal of pathogens and pharmaceutical residues in a domestic wastewater treatment plant by an interdisciplinary approach’, Environmental Science and Pollution Research Open access

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AttractSPE®Disks RPS with a PES membrane were used as disk passive samplers for the integration of 44 hydrophilic micropollutants in surface water. Duplicates of passive samplers were used and the robustness of this device was demonstrated. A comparison with an automatic sampler (sampling every 2h) was done and 76 % of the measured concentrations showed no major difference between both methods. Compounds more hydrophobic were better detected with an automatic sampler due to the higher retention of these compounds on PES membrane with the passive sampler. The limit of quantification is lower with a passive sampler as analytes are preconcentrated in the sorbent instead of an active sampler where analytes are directly injected in LC-MS/MS. It also highlights the fact that PRC spiked silicone disks were not necessary due to high water velocity and the sampling rate Rs max could be used instead to calculate TWA. On the contrary, Rs from literature could be used on the hydrodynamic conditions.

Reymond, N. et al. (2023) ‘An improved Chemcatcher-based method for the integrative passive sampling of 44 hydrophilic micropollutants in surface water – Part B: Field implementation and comparison with automated active sampling’, Science of The Total Environment, 871, p. 161937 Open access

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Different organizations have carried out a 3 months water quality monitoring (JDS4) in the Danube, the major European river, in 9 different sites analyzing 747 micropollutants. AttractSPE®Disks HLB was used as disk passive samplers (without diffusion membrane) and allowed to analyze 671 compounds from pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCP), pesticides, and industrial components. As a complement, silicone rubber and bioassays were realized. It’s the first study that provides the most representative samples of a complete season contamination along the river using passive samplers rather than conventionally spot sampling. Much more pollutants were detected in comparison with other studies (like JDS3).

Šauer, P., Vrana, B., Escher, B. I., Grabic, R., Toušová, Z., Krauss, M., Von der Ohe, P. C., König, M., Grabicová, K., Mikušová, P., Prokeš, R., Sobotka, J., Fialová, P., Novák, J., Brack, W., & Hilscherová, K. (2023) ‘Bioanalytical and chemical characterization of organic micropollutant mixtures in long-term exposed passive samplers from the Joint Danube Survey 4: Setting a baseline for water quality monitoring’, Environment International, 178, 107957, 2023. Open access

Products used in this article:

• Disks SPE-Disks-HLB-47.T1.20 20/pk
• Disks – passive samplers DBPS.HLB.90.40.kit.10 10/pk

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In 2021, the Joint Danube Survey 4 has gathered very comprehensive data on the monitoring of Danube river in biology, microbiology, hydromorphology and chemical contamination. In the chapter 32 of the report, passive samplers using AttractSPE®Disks HLB (without diffusion membrane) were used to monitor 154 compounds including pharmaceuticals, pesticides, benzotriazoles, illicit drugs and their metabolites. The sampling period was during the summer period (100 days) on 9 sites along the Danube.

Vrana B., Smedes F., Hilscherová K., Prokeš R., Sobotka J., Fialová P., Alygizakis N., Slobodník J.,Tarábek P., Makovinská J., Thomaidis N., Nika M., Krauss M., Muz M., Schulze T., Grabic R., Grabicová R. (2021) ‘Scientific Report: A Shared Analysis of the Danube River Published by: ICPDR – International Commission for the Protection of the Danube’, p349 (chapter 32) River,  www.danubesurvey.org. Open access

Products used in this article: 

• Disks SPE-Disks-HLB-47.T1.20 20/pk
• Disks – passive samplers DBPS.HLB.90.40.kit.10 10/pk

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A passive sampler based on AttractSPE®Disks HLB was evaluated for groundwater analysis and pressurized pipes in pumping stations. In both cases, several thousand features were detected with the passive sampler in comparison to hundreds with grab samples.

Béen, F., Beernink, S. and Amato, E. (2021) Combining passive sampling with suspect and non-target screening (NTS) to monitor groundwater quality. BTO 2021.001. KWR Water Research Institute Open access

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This article provides standard methods and guidelines for the laboratory preparation of Chemcatcher passive samplers for the measurement of polar organic compounds in particular AttractSPE®HLB. It includes information on the preparation of deployment equipment and the extraction of sequestered analytes on the receiving phase disk up to the point of instrumental analysis. This protocol has been used successfully to monitor a wide range of polar pollutants (such as plant protection products, pharmaceuticals, and personal care products) in rivers and streams worldwide.

Robinson, R.F.A., Mills, G.A. and Fones, G.R. (2023) ‘Monitoring of polar organic compounds in fresh waters using the Chemcatcher passive sampler’, MethodsX, 10, 102054. Open Access

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The miniaturization of a full workflow for the identification and monitoring of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) is presented with the use of AttractSPE®HLB as receiving phase of the passive sampler. Almost double the number of CECs were identified in 3D-PSD extracts across sites compared to water samples (80 versus 42 CECs, respectively).

Richardson, A.K. et al. (2022) ‘A miniaturized passive sampling-based workflow for monitoring chemicals of emerging concern in water’, Science of The Total Environment, 839, p. 156260 Open Access

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AttractSPE® Disks HLB were used as passive sampler with a diffusion membrane to monitor 164 contaminants of emerging concerns (CEC) on two sites on River Thames near London (UK). Whereas grab water analysis could detect a total of 33 CECs, passive samplers could make possible the detection of 65 unique compounds (pharmaceuticals, illicit drugs, drug metabolites, personal care products and pesticides)

Richardson, A.K. et al. (2021) ‘Rapid direct analysis of river water and machine learning assisted suspect screening of emerging contaminants in passive sampler extracts’, Analytical Methods, 13(5), pp. 595–606. Open Access

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Passive samplers based on SPE disks and silicone rubbers were deployed in the Sierra Nevada to concentrate pesticides for days to weeks at a time. This report shows that the use of diffusion-limiting membranes (DLM) prevents the accumulation of more hydrophobic compounds on the receiving phase. AttractSPE® Disks HLB and RPS were suitable to be used without DLM and to accumulate a broad range of pesticides for the determination of their presence/absence.

De Parsia, M.D., Orlando, J.L. and Hladik, M.L. (2023) Assessing the presence of current-use pesticides in mid-elevation Sierra Nevada streams using passive samplers, California, 2018–19. U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2022–5129. Open Access

 

Davide Staedler and colleagues from the University of Lausanne carried out an assessment of seasonal and temporal variations of pesticides and metals (DGT) in the brackish waters of the Camargue, a difficult environment influenced by rainfalls, evaporation period, agricultural practices, and variation of the salinity level.
Passive samplers, AttractSPE®POCIS HLB with PRC (for organic contaminants) and DGT (for metals), were exposed during 21 days on 8 sites and used to evaluate the effectiveness of remediation practices over a period of 11 months.
Over 483 analyzed organic compounds, 100 contaminants (41% herbicides, 30% fungicides, 13% insecticides, and 16% degradation products) were measured above the LoQ and monitored during this period.

Boisard, E. et al. (2025) ‘Passive sampling in brackish waters: Monitoring metals and organic pollutants in the Camargue and its application to phytoremediation’, Environmental Advances, 21, p. 100656. Open access

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Pesticide degradation in surface waters from agricultural catchment runoff was analyzed by a unique combination of passive samplers (AttractSPE®POCIS HLB) with compound-specific isotope analysis (CSIA). The POCIS were positioned for 28 days in a pond and a river to assess differences in contamination in these environments.
However, co-elution with the surface water matrix can severely limit isotopic measurements and must be systematically checked before applying the POCIS-CSIA approach.

Gilevska, T. et al. (2022) ‘Do pesticides degrade in surface water receiving runoff from agricultural catchments? Combining passive samplers (POCIS) and compound-specific isotope analysis’, Science of The Total Environment, 842, p. 156735.

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Glyphosate and AMPA concentrations in the plasma of Florida manatees were determined. In parallel, the monitoring of these molecules in Florida water bodies before, during and after the sugarcane harvest was carried out with grab samples as well as with AFFINIMIP®POCIS GLYPHOSATE.

De María, M., Silva-Sanchez, C., Kroll, K.J., Walsh, M.T., Nouri, M.-Z., Hunter, M.E., Ross, M., Clauss, T.M. and Denslow, N.D. (2021) ‘Chronic exposure to glyphosate in Florida manatee’, Environment International, 152, 106493 Open access

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Performance of AFFINIMIP®POCIS were evaluated with trace concentration of glyphosate delivered as a 1-day pulse following by flushing (mimic silviculture applications) compared with continuous delivery (mimic agricultural or urban applications). Several concentrations of Rodeo were tested (equivalent to 0.0 to 1.84 µg glyphosate /L.

Coble, A.A., Silva-Sanchez, C., Arthurs, W.J. and Flinders, C.A. (2022) ‘Detection and accumulation of environmentally-relevant glyphosate concentrations delivered via pulse- or continuous-delivery on passive samplers’, Science of the Total Environment, 838, 156131 Open access

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BRGM (French Institute of Geological Survey) has evaluated the passive sampling of 42 pesticides for GROUNDWATER. Two types of passive samplers, a POCIS for polar pesticides, and a POCIS-MIP sampler equivalent to AFFINIMIP® POCIS Glyphosate were studied under low flow conditions as exist in groundwater. Calibrations took place in an experimental pilot filled with groundwater and with a few metres of water per day. AMPA and glyphosate had similar sampling rates for both tested water-flow values (1 m and 4 m per day), but that were lower than those obtained under stirring conditions by a factor 3 for glyphosate and a factor 7 for AMPA.

Berho, C., Robert, S., Coureau, C., Coisy, E., Berrehouc, A., Amalric, L. and Bruchet, A. (2020) ‘Estimating 42 pesticide sampling rates by POCIS and POCIS-MIP samplers for groundwater monitoring: a pilot-scale calibration’, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27, pp. 40174–40185.

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A polar organic chemical integrative sampler (POCIS) dedicated to glyphosate and its main degradation product aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) have been developped from AFFINIMIP^®SPE Glyphosate-AMPA. The laboratory calibration in a continuous water-flow-through exposure system show a sampling rates of 111 and 122 mL day^-1 for glyphosate and AMPA respectively. This product is marketed as AFFINIMIP^® POCIS GLYPHOSATE.

Berho, C., Claude, B., Coisy, E., Togola, A., Bayoudh, S., Morin, P. and Amalric, L. (2017) ‘Laboratory calibration of a POCIS-like sampler based on molecularly imprinted polymers for glyphosate and AMPA sampling in water’, Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 409(8), pp. 2029–2038.

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A SPE sorbent based on Molecularly Imprinted Polymers (MIP) was developed for Glyphosate and AMPA to be tested as an integrative passive sampler (POCIS-LIKE) receiving phase.

New molecularly imprinted polymers (MIP) used as SPE clean up method and as a passive sampler receiving phase for the catchment of glyphosate and AMPA in water, C. Berho, B. Claude, L. Amalric, A. Togola, E. Grellet, S. Bayoudh, K. Puzio, P. Morin with a financial support of the French National Research Agency (ANR):  ECOTECH ORIGAMI PROJECT, Poster presented at SETAC 2015.